updated on June 29, 2005

SOME BASIC LESSON PRESENTATION ELEMENTS
http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/hunter-eei.html
includes
     The Madeline Hunter Direct Instruction Model
1.objectives
2.standards
3.anticipatory set
4.teaching
          input
          modeling
          check for understanding
5.guided practice/monitoring
6.closure
7.independent practice

The Madeline Hunter "Seven Step" lesson design may be used for more than just direct instruction in the
behavioral mode. It can be used as a shell for any instructional lesson or unit.

"One use in an inquiry mode suggested by Dr. Hunter appeared in Educational Leadership,
December-January 1990-91, pp. 79-80: "Anticipatory set and objective: Let's review the procedure in
making slides because today you'll be making your own slides to be used in developing a hypothesis to
explain_________ and support your conclusions....Objective: Today your group will work with magnets
to see how many generalizations you can develop and support...Input: Remember what you've learned
about modifying only one variable at a time, observing results carefully and checking whether or not the
data supportyour hypothesis. Your information today will be derived from your own observations
while you experiment with these materials.... (Input can come from observation, experimentation,
computers, films, videos, books, etc., not just from teachers.) Modeling : Observe what I do, and be
ready to state whether my conclusions are valid or invalid, and why.... Checking for understanding:
Look at your data to determine and be ready to state which could be used either to support or refute
yourhypothesis.... Guided or monitored practice: I'll be circulating among your lab groups. Signal me if
you have questions or need assistance.... Independent practice:Identify a question that you have
about___________. Then design and conduct an experiment (alone/ group) that would answer your
question...."

                   Decontextualization for transfer and general application
"Barak Rosenshine, in a presentation to the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
Spring 1990, reported on recent research on direct instruction. Direct instruction (as addressed by
Rosenshine) applies to skills, not to the teaching of content.
Most of the research on teaching effectiveness has been on the teaching of well-structured skills: how to
add, how to focus a microscope. His new work addresses research on how effective teachers teach
less-structured skills: how to summarize, how to take notes, how to ask appropriate questions, etc.
Other continua that are similar/parallel to well structured-less structured are: explicit-implicit,
algorithm-heuristic, and concrete-abstract.

The strategies he has recently reported provide scaffolds for learning the less-structured skills. They:

     Regulate the difficulty [escalate after learner gets it]

     Anticipate difficult areas [then provide lots of support]

     Model: talk out loud about the process you are going through.

     Provide procedural facilitators [procedural facilitators are to content as advance organizers are to
     process]

     Provide appropriate student practice in varied contexts.

All of these apply to the teaching of well-structured skills as well but they are specifically indicated for
the teaching of less structured skills: things for which discrete procedural steps are hard to identify.
They are less relevant to the teaching of content because prior/background knowledge is key to the
teaching of content.

Learning takes place in the zone of proximal development [ZPD] where the student's development is
advanced enough for the pupil to learn but will need help to get there.

A scaffold[outline, model, visual instruction plan (VIP), diagram, or figure that provides an image to
hang ideas on] makes it easier for the learner to "get it" in developmental skills subjects where
background knowledge is not key and so is not applicable for non-progressive content like social
studies or literature. ZPD is not critical for most content in English or social studies but is more so in
science or math. [Note: writing an essay, at least in the initial learning stages, is a less-structured skill
that has steps that can be taught, e.g., start with an attention-grabber, then a topic sentence, then a
statement followed by supporting information, then another statement with support, then a third
statement with support, then a summary statement tying the three statements to the topic.]

Most things in math and science, especially skills, are taught in a context. For transfer to broader
applicability it is necessary to decontextualize the learning. One way to do this is in guided practice by
giving attention to decontextualizing the skill by providing lots of varied practice and spaced practice.
[Ed.note: And to have students manipulate the ideas/skills, e.g., "Have you ever seen something like
this down town?" or "How many ways can you think of to use this concept/skill?" or "Can you explain
how you arrived at that answer" (metacognition).]"

THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES from
http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/bloomtax.html

"This is a revised version of Benjamin Bloom's work with the addition of the Psychomotor
Domain as developed by Anita Harrow [1972]. Dr. Bloom's intent was to develop a
classification framework for writing educational objectives. The questions and examples
were added by Tom Allen to make the Taxonomy more useful for beginning teachers as a
tool to facilitate appropriate questioning."

COGNITIVE DOMAIN:

   1.Knowledge: recognize or recall information.

     Q: What is the capital of Maine? Who wrote "Hamlet?"

     Words typically used: define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where, when.

   2.Comprehension: demonstrate that the student has sufficient understanding to organize and
     arrange material mentally.

     Q: What do you think Hamlet meant when he said, "to be or not to be, that is the question?"
     (Rosenshine, among others, would argue that one of the best ways to teach is to teach pupils how to ask their own questions about the topic under consideration.)

     Words typically used: describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own words, explain the
     main idea.

   3.Application: a question that asks a student to apply previously learned information to reach an
     answer. Solving math word problems is an example.

     Q: According to our definition of socialism, which of the following nations would be considered to be socialist?

     Words typically used: apply, classify, use, choose, employ,write and example, solve, how many,
     which, what is.

   4.Analysis: higher order questions that require students to think critically and in depth.
[Unlessstudents can be brought to the higher levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, it is unlikely
     that transfer will take place, i.e., this is stuff I can use rather than this is just more dumb school stuff
     that I can forget after I take the test. If teachers don't ask higher level questions, it is unlikely that
     most students will transfer school work to real life. They may not even be able to apply it to school
     situations other than the one in which it was "learned." E.g., we "know" that students know more
     than scores on the CAP Test or SAT would suggest.] In analysis questions, students are asked to
     engage in three kinds of cognitive processes:

        1.identify the motives, reasons, and/or causes for aspecific occurrence (Q: Why was Israel
          selected as the site for the Jewish nation?),

        2.consider and analyze available information to reach a conclusion, inference, or generalization
          based on this information (Q: After studying the French, American, and Russian revolutions,
          what can you conclude about the causes of a revolution?), or

        3.Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions, determine evidence,
          support, analyze, why.

   5.Synthesis: higher order question that asks the student to perform original and creative thinking.
     Synthesis questions ask students to:

        1.produce original communications. (Q: What's a good name for this invention? Write a letter
          to the editor on a social issue of concern to you. Make a collage of pictures and words that
          represents your beliefs and feelings about the issue.)

        2.make predictions. (Q: How would the U.S.A. be different if the South had won the Civil War?
          What would happen if school attendance was made optional? What is the next likely
          development in popular music?)

        3.solve problems--although analysis questions may also ask students to solve problems,
          synthesis questions differ because they don't require a single correct answer but, instead
          allow a variety of creative answers. (How could we determine the number of pennies in a jar
          without counting them? How can we raise money for our ecology project?

          Words typically used in synthesis questions: predict, produce, write, design, develop,
          synthesize, construct, how can we improve, what would happen if, can you devise, how can
          we solve.

   6.Evaluation: a higher level question that does not have a single correct answer. It requires the
     student to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work. The student
     may also be asked to offer an opinion on an issue.

(Q: Do you think schools are too easy? Is busing an appropriate remedy for desegregating schools? Do you think it is true that "Americans never had it so good?" Which U.S. senator is the most effective? To answer evaluation questions objective
     criteria or personal values must be applied. Some standard must be used. differing standards are
     quite acceptable and they naturally result in different answers. This type of question frequently is
     used to surface values or to cause students to realize that not everyone sees things the same way. It
     can be used to start a class discussion. It can also precede a follow-up analysis or synthesis
     question like, "Why?"

Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

The Affective Domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and emotional sets.

The original purpose of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives was to provide a tool for classifying
instructional objectives. The Taxonomy is hierarchical (levels increase in difficulty/sophistication) and
cumulative (each level builds on and subsumes the ones below). The levels, in addition to clarifying
instructional objectives, may be used to provide a basis for questioning that ensures that students
progress to the highest level of understanding. If the teaching purpose is to change attitudes/behavior
rather than to transmit/process information, then the instruction should be structured to progress
through the levels of the Affective Domain:

   1.Receiving. The student passively attends to particular phenomena or stimuli [classroom activities,
     textbook,music, etc. The teacher's concern is that the student's attention is focused. Intended
     outcomes include the pupil's awareness that a thing exists. Sample objectives: listens attentively,
     shows sensitivity to social problems. Behavioral terms: asks, chooses, identifies, locates, points to,
     sits erect, etc.

   2.Responding. The student actively participates. The pupil not only attends to the stimulus but
     reacts in some way. Objectives: completes homework, obeys rules, participates in class discussion,
     shows interest in subject, enjoys helping others, etc. Terms: answers, assists, complies, discusses,
     helps, performs, practices, presents, reads, reports, writes,etc.

   3.Valuing. The worth a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. Ranges
     from acceptance to commitment (e.g., assumes responsibility for the functioning of a group).
     Attitudes and appreciation. Objectives: demonstrates belief in democratic processes, appreciates
     the role of science in daily life, shows concern for others' welfare, demonstrates a problem-solving
     approach, etc. Terms: differentiates, explains, initiates, justifies, proposes, shares, etc.

   4.Organization. Bringing together different values, resolving conflicts among them, and starting to
     build an internally consistent value system--comparing, relating and synthesizing values and
     developing a philosophy of life. Objectives: recognizes the need for balance between freedom and
     responsibility in a democracy, understands the role of systematic planning in solving problems,
     accepts responsibility for own behavior, etc. Terms: Arranges, combines, compares, generalizes,
     integrates, modifies, organizes, synthesizes, etc.

   5.Characterization by a Value or Value Complex. At this level, the person has held a value system
     that hascontrolled his behavior for a sufficiently long time that acharacteristic "life style" has been
     developed. Behavior ispervasive, consistent and predictable. Objectives are concernedwith
     personal, social, and emotional adjustment: displays self reliance in working independently,
     cooperates in groupactivities, maintains good health habits, etc.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN of Educational Objectives.

Instructional objectives and derived questions/tasks typically have cognitive/affective elements, but
the focus is on motorskill development. The suggested areas for use are speechdevelopment, reading
readiness, handwriting, and physical educa‚tion. Other areas include manipulative skills required
inbusiness training [e.g., keyboarding], industrial technology, andperformance areas in science, art and
music. American educationhas tended to emphasize cognitive development at the expense ofaffective
and psychomotor development. The well©rounded and fully functioning person needs development in
all three domains. In the psychomotor domain, performance may take the place ofquestioning strategies
in many cases.

   1.Reflex movements. Segmental, intersegmental, and suprasegmental reflexes.

   2.Basic-fundamental movements. Locomotor movements, nonlocomotor movements, manipulative
     movements.

   3.Perceptual abilities. Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and coordinatedabilities.

   4.Physical abilities. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility.

   5.Skilled movements. Simple, compound, and complex adaptive skills.

   6.Nondiscursive communication. Expressive andinterpretive movement.

     Sample general objectives: writes smoothly and legibly; accurately reproduces a picture, map, etc.;
     operates a [machine] skillfully; plays the piano skillfully; demonstrates correct swimming form;
     drives an automobile skillfully; creates a new way of performing [creative dance]; etc.

     Behavioral terms: assembles, builds, composes, fastens, grips, hammers, makes, manipulates,
     paints, sharpens, sketches, uses, etc. [See Anita Harrow, 1972, for more detail on the psychomotor
     domain.]
 

Questions for Lesson Planning
from the Teaching and Learning Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Unit Topic:
Date:

Daily Topic:
Date:

1. What are the important ideas, concepts, content topics to address?

2. What should students be able to do with these ideas when this lesson is finished? (Recall, list, identify, differentiate, classify, compare, contrast, locate, plan, apply, design, evaluate, select, etc.)

3. What activity or combination of activities would best enable students to learn to do items in Question #2?  (i.e., listen, read, discuss, brainstorm, analyze, problem-solving, demonstrate, film, video, other media, examples, case study, simulation, guests, etc.)

4. What time allocation can be made for these activities? (i.e., within class, outside of class assignments,  individual, small group, etc.) What materials do I need to implement this plan?

5. How can I find out if students are able to do the needed items in Question #2? (i.e., questioning, non-verbal cues, quizzes, look at notes, ask for questions, etc.)

6. What are reasonable and appropriate ways to evaluate how well students have learned the items in Question #2? (i.e., tests, papers, reports, oral presentations, performance demonstration, journals, etc.)

7. What assessments can I make which will help me teach this better next time? (i.e., notes, video or audio recordings, gathering feedback from students, have trusted peer observe and give feedback, etc.)
 

from an analysis of
Gagne, R. M., (1965). The Conditions of Learning. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York. ,

Gagne, R.M., (1992). Principles of Instructional Design. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York.
 

                                  Types of learning outcomes

          intellectual skills - concepts are demonstrated by labeling or classifying things
          intellectual skills - problem solving  allows generating solutions or procedures
          cognitive strategies are used for learning
          verbal information  is stated
          motor skills enable physical performance
          attitudes are demonstrated by preferring options.
 
 

EXTERNAL INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT	INTERNAL LEARNING PROCESS
Gaining attention	To ensure reception of coming instruction we give the learner a stimulus.
Tell learners the learning objective	Tell the learner what they will be able to do because of the instruction.
Stimulating recall of prior learning	Ask for recall of existing relevant knowledge.
Presenting the stimulus	Display the content.
Providing learning guidance	Help understanding (semantic encoding) by providing organization & relevance.
Eliciting performance	Ask the learner to respond, demonstrating learning
Providing feedback	Give informative feedback on the learner's performance.
Assessing performance	Require more learner performance, and give feedback, to reinforce learning.
Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts	Provide varied practice to generalize the capability.

Tactical and Structural Recommendations for Lesson Planning and Critical Thinking
 http://www.criticalthinking.org/
 

Darren Forrester & Noel Jantzie, University of Calgary http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~gnjantzi/learning_theories.htm
discuss learning theories within the implications of the "technology revolution."

Cognitive Approaches to Instructional Design http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/training.html

Anatomy of a Lesson Plan  http://www.huntington.edu/education/lessonplanning/Bloom.html  

  The CCI Assessment Process from Beginning Teacher Guide
"The Connecticut Competency Instrument (CCI) is a classroom assessment used to measure, within a lesson, those essential teaching competencies that are common across all grade levels and content areas. The Connecticut Competency Instrument includes the following 10 indicators:
• Promoting a Positive Learning Environment
• Maintaining Standards of Behavior
• Engaging Students
• Managing Routines and Transitions
• Presenting Appropriate Lesson Content
• Creating a Structure for Learning
• Developing a Lesson to Promote Achievement of Lesson Objective
• Using Appropriate Questioning Techniques
• Communicating Appropriately
• Monitoring and Adjusting the Lesson Instruction"

The Indicators of the CCI from
     I. MANAGEMENT OF THE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
          A. Positive Learning Environment
          B. Standards of Behavior
          C. Student Engagement
          D. Routines and Transitions
     II. INSTRUCTION
          A. Lesson Content
          B. Structure for Learning
          C. Lesson Development
          D. Questioning
          E. Communication
     III. ASSESSMENT
          A. Monitoring and Adjusting