ARTICLE REVIEW by James Hendricks Jr.

Zhang, Z. (2000). Technology and the writing skills of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(4), 467-479.

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This article involves five fifth-grade parochial school students from the midwestern United States. The students all had learning disabilities with written languages deficits. Because of these disabilities, the students were chosen to participate in a case study which involved using a computer-based writing tool to assist them with the weekly writing curriculum. The study cites that previous studies show that computer-based instruction have both impeded and facilitated students’ progress. This study shows the positive effect the educational technology had on the students’ progress.

A specialized curriculum was designed for this study to include ROBO-Writer as the writing tool for these students. Students were instructed three times a week, twenty minutes per session, in a supervised computer lab. Students were allowed to engage in free writing or assigned writing topics. Completed work was graded by elementary school teachers.

This study found that the five students created better writing when ROBO-Writer was used. When computer-based writing samples were compared to classroom-based samples, the differences were extraordinary. A normally disruptive student during classroom-based writing time produced a 350-word story with his time in the computer lab. Another student also produced same results.

The researcher concludes that with sound curriculum, technology can be used to "overcome barriers in the writing process." The researcher also concludes that when technology is misapplied without a sound curriculum, it becomes more of a distraction then a help. By incorporating additional tools, encouragement, and conventions into the teacher’s teaching styles, the students with and without learning disabilities are more apt to benefit. Teachers shouldn’t reinvent the wheel, but adapt it so there is a smoother ride.

BIBLIOGRAPHY developed by Tony Napoleone on Technology in the Classroom

Diane Pedrotty Bryant and Brian R. Bryant.  "Using Assistive Technology Adaptions to
Include Students with Learning Disabilities in Cooperative Learning Activities".  Journal of Learning Disabilities January - February 1998: vol.31,#1. 41-54.

The purpose of this article was to discuss a process for incorporating assistive technology adaption into cooperative learning activities.  Cooperative learning was chosen as the instructional focus for technology integration because it is a popular instructional arrangement used by by both special and general educators to promote the academic and social success of students with learning disabilities.  "Technology adaptions are a tool for educators to employ in providing appropriate instruction for students with learning disablities"(52). I would highly recommend this issue of Journal of Learning Disabilities to those teachers who have LD students in their classrooms so they can better understand how technology related assistance can better help them participate more fully in instructional activities.

Barbara L. Funke. "Creating Internet Assignments."  Journal of Health Education
September-October 1998. 268-270

This article focuses on the use of the Internet as a teaching method and how it has gained increased attention among educators.  Although this essay deals with how Funke uses the Internet for her college courses in Health, it can easily be adapted to fit elementary, middle, and the secondary school curriculum.  Funke also gives an example of an Internet Assignment she has developed for her course.  The assignment required students to access specific web sites and answer certain question or perform certain tasks such as print a particular page, enter a search term into a search engine, or look at a section and tell her their reaction. Funke also stresses that teachers have to identify sites for students to explore and determine the learning activities to be completed at each site.  Finally, Funke emphasizes that teachers as well as students must be able to critically evaluate www sources
because the web is unregulated.
 

citations developed by Kristen Keatley-Swansen

 In this article the students and the teachers work together to use a multimedia products. The students and the teachers attend a workshop together. At first the teachers are teaching the students and then the students are teaching the teachers about computer technology.

 Salvador, Roberta, Electronic Learning, Net-Centric Computing: Will Schools Plug In?, J.Goldenberg, E. Paul, et al, Computers, Education and Special Needs, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading Massachusetts, 1984.

 This books instructs the reading how to use a computer for a handicapped child. Tomputer for a handicapped child. The author talks about isses centeral to learning, communication, access and motiviation - how these issues are addressed when the computer is used..

Hagen, Dolores, Microcomputer Resource Book for Special Education, A Reston Computer Group, Inc., Reston, Virginia, 1984.

 This book is devoted to helping handicapped children to develop skills to cope in society. The author talks about different programs and how they can help their child. The author of this book also has a handicapped child and is very concerned about making handicapped children successful.
 
 

citations developed by Tina Panfili

This article addresses the topic of choosing computer software that is
appropriate for young children. Computer software must be evaluated as
critically as any classroom material. Computer software must be
evaluated keeping in mind that children are unique and special.
 

2.) "Curriculum Guide for Teachers of Young Children," KIDWARE 2,
Thouvenelle, Suzanne & Wright, June.

 The authors of this article believe that computers in the early
childhood classroom are a great asset to the classroom. The authors
also emphasize that computers must be used appropriately.
 

3.) "Discovery: Mathematics, Science, Computers." Chapter 24 from
Resources for Teaching Children with Diverse Abilities, Harcourt Brace
+ Co., 1993, Deiner, Penny Low.

 Math, Science and computers are taught as "hands on" experience in the
EC curriculum. Computers offer children a potential source of
communication and way of exerting control over their environment.
 

4.) "Developmentally Appropriate Software for Young Children," Young
Children, May 1988, Haugland, Susan W., & Shade, Daniel D.

 Authors provide a surprising evaluation of software available to young
children. Many programs out on the market are not rated very high. Be
careful when choosing software for your classroom. Bad computer
experience are not better than no experience at all.
 
 

citations developed by Kathleen J. Green

 This article describes a pilot project with preservice teachers who taught
technology-based lessons in elementary school classrooms. The preservice
teachers reported that teaching with technology is a good way to learn how
theory is applied in practice and it enhanced their knowledge of how technology
can support teaching and learning.

 Gearheart, Bill R. and Carol J., and Mel W. Weishahn. "Teaching Students Who
Are Visually Impaired." The Exceptional Student in the Regular Classroom.
NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1996. Chapter 7.

 This chapter offers advise and resource information to teachers about
computer-assisted learning for visually impaired students. First there are
reviews of the most recent computer assisted learning devices. Then the
chapter provides a list of manufacturers and suppliers who can assist in
providing appropriate computer equipment.

 Lindsey, Jimmy D. Computers and Exceptional Individuals. Columbus: Merrill,
1987.

 Provides practical discussions of current computer technology with handicapped
and gifted/talented individuals. Practicality is stressed in the suggested
activities and resourses. Any individuals interested in learning about
specific hardware and software concepts can develop a foundation for this
knowledge using this book as a guide.

 Maxwell Group. "Computers In the K-6 Classroom." The CompuResource Book.
Campbell, CA, 1996.

 The book shows how to integrate drawing, spreadsheet, data base, and word
processing programs into all subject areas. All the activities describe the
kind of software required, curricular area, time required, computer skills
learned, and activity extensions.

citations developed by Stephanie Gilbert

 Author: Nagler, Eve

 Source: The New York Times
Date: June 26, 1994

 Increasing numbers of children in Connecticut are attending
specialized summer camps that offer training in computers, chess,
science, art, music and theater. Some of the offbeat specialty camps
operating in Connecticut are listed.
 
 

Title: New Windows on the World: Project brings computers, Internet to
Ward 8 youths

 Author: Parker, Lonnae O'Neal

 Source: The Washington Post
Date: November 29, 1995

 YouthLink, a program offered by the Washington area Project for
Youth in Washington DC, is discussed. The project will train
disadvantaged teenagers on hoe to use the Internet and will set up
community centers across Ward 8.
 
 

Title: Technology: Special needs: Opening a door

Author: Ortega, Bob

 Source: The Wall Street Journal
Date: November 13, 1995

 For some troubled staudents having problems with teacher-authority
interaction, the depersonalization of computer education can be a plus.
One consideration is that educational software can be more flexible than
a teacher.
 

Title: Technology: Special Needs: Free to Learn

 Author: Choi, Audrey

 Source: The Wall Street Journal
Date: November 13,1995
 

Computers designed for the disabled are reshaping the field of
special education. While learning gains from technology have been
incremental for average students, dramatic advances are being made with
computers and adaptive devices tailored to the disabled.
 
 

citations developed by Victoria Cole

 Computer experiences help young children to witness cause and effect
relationships; children are in control and make things happen. This
article also sets forth criteria to help determine which software is
appropriate for young children.

 "The Computer Learning Center From a Developmental Perspective"
June Wright & Suzanne Thouvenalle
Kidware 2+: Classroom Guide

 This excerpt outlines basic educational principles for Early Childhood
Programs and parallels these principles for use with the computer.

SUZANNE DARAS

 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Cruikshank, Douglas. Teaching and Learning Elementary and Middle
School Mathematics. New York: Macmillan, 1992.
Chapters 2, 6, 9, 12, 14. Discusses uses of computers in the
classroom, and specific mathematic applications.
 

Lefrancois, Guy R. Psychology for Teaching. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth,Inc., 1994. Chapters 5, 12.
Discusses pros and cons of computers'
integration in the classroom, and discusses specific applications.

 Salend, Spencer. Effective Mainstreaming. New York: Macmillan, 1994.
Chapter 2. Suggestions for software that can be used for educators
to evaluate IEP software programs. Sample given in chapter.
May save time for special education educators, who are overwhelmed
with paperwork.

 Salend, Spencer. Effective Mainstreaming. New York: Macmillan, 1994.
Chapter 7. Discusses alternative mathods of putting information
into the computer for students with special needs. What special
education teacher would not want more options to facilitate their
students' learning?
 
 

a citation from Jennifer Mannello

 For my second bibliography I read the twelth chapter in the We Teach With Technology book. Chapter twelve discusses how beneficial computers are to those students with special needs. Computers can enhance communication between students with hearing and speech impairments and they can also help teach phonics to students who may be dyslexic. I found this chapter to be interesting because it also discusses how computers can help those students who are "at-risk". The book gives examples of story writing programs that focus childrens attention to positive things like learning. To me, this chapter was helpfull because I am considering going into special ed.
 
 

citations developed by Shelley Michaud

 This article focused on the use of technology in helping at-risk studens and increasing interaction between these students and their parents. The author¹s highlight the need for parent involvement in student learning and achievement. Parent involvement with their children is aided through the use of software programs they may use together and communication tools.

 Kaplan, Nancy. ³The Classroom Manager: Hands-on Multimedia.²
Instructor 101 (Apr 1992): p105.

 A group of four teachers discussed how they implemented the use of computers into classroom activities and projects. They mentioned the use of making data note cards on specific topics and the use of CD-ROM programs in research. This article showed me the usefulness of using hands-on Multimedia activities can make project research easier and more interesting for students, while exposing them to computers and creating computer literate students.

 Special Education Citations developed by Chris Ramano

#1 SPENCER J. SALEND, EFFECTIVE MAINSTREAMING. MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO., NEW YORK, 1994. P. 327-330.
POINTS OUT ADVANTAGES OF WORD PROCESSING OVER HANDWRITING. SOME
EXAMPLES ARE EASIER REVISION PROCESS, THESAURUS CAPAPBILITY, SAVES TIME AND TEDIUM OF REVISING. ALSO POINTS OUT THAT WORD PROCESSING MAY BE PARTICULARLY USEFUL TO MAINSTREAMED STUDENTS WHO MIGHT HAVE PROBLEMS WITH HANDWRITING, SPELLING, AND REVISION.

 #2 JOHNSON,DUPUIS, MUSIAL, HALL, FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 9TH ED. ALLYN AND BACON PUB. CO. 1994 PGS 500-505.
DISCUSSES LOGISTICAL PROBLEMS OF INTEGRATING COMPUTERS IN THE CLASSROOM LIKE: EXPENSIVE HARDWARE AND UNDERFUNDED SCHOOL DISTRICTS, DEARTH OF COMPUTER LITERATE TEACHERS. ALSO POINTS OUT COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS INABILITY TO REPLICATE 'HUMAN TOUCH' OF HANDS-ON LESSONS. ALSO RAISES QUESTIONS OF INEQUALITY AMONG WEALTHIER AND POORER DISTRICTS.

 #3 JOHN MAYHER, UNCOMMON SENSE. BOYNTON/COOK PUB. CO., 1990. P. 56-57.
CONTENDS THAT COMPUTER BASED INSTRUCTION IS VERY SIMILIAR TO PROGRAM BASED INSTRUCTION. THE AUTHOR SEES THIS AS A NEGATIVE BECAUSE PROGRAM BASED INSTRUCTION DOES NOT FULLY RECOGNIZE THE NEEDS OF INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS. FURTHER, HE FEELS STUDENTS ARE BEING ROBBED OF THE CHANCE TO UNDERSTAND THE WHOLE TEXT. INSTEAD, HE CONTENDS THEY MAY GET THE MESSAGE THAT READING 'ISN'T ANYTHING MUCH TO GET EXCITED ABOUT'

 #4 BIEHLER AND SNOWMAN, PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO TEACHING. HOUGHTON AND
MUFFLIN CO. 1993, P501-502.
ARGUES THAT COMPUTER BASED LEARNING CAN BE AN INTEGRAL PART OF A
HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO EDUCATION. SOFTWARE TODAY DEALS WITH ATTITUDES, VALUES, AND CAN BE USED IN SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION. EXAMPLE, VALUE CLARIFICATION SERIES, ASSISTS STUDENTS IN IDENTIFY THEIR VALUES ON SPECIFIC TOPICS. OTHER SOFTWARE PROGRAMS HELP STUDENTS UNDERTAND THE VARIOUS TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS THEY HAVE WITH OTHERS.

Computer Education for Special Needs Students 
developed by Mary Ellen Dannehy

 The information in this bibliography reflects a small sampling of articles and a book available to an educator interested in computers and their applications for the education of children with special needs.
Great care was taken to attempt to make the information as current and complete as possible, in order to serve the reader coming from either a technological or a Special Education background.
I hope that this bibliography provides the special education teacher with some new ideas and inspirations for further involvement in the field of computers and students with special needs. The reading certainly provided me with lots of ideas, not only for this course, but also for my interest in Special Education.

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 1. Computers, Education, and Special Needs, E.P. Goldenberg, S. J. Russel, C. Carter; Addison-Weslet (1994)

 This book is one of many in the Addison-Wesley Computers in Education series. The content of the book explores some of the issues central to working with people with special needs of all types. Topics include programming suggestions, ideas for course development, and other useful applications.

 2. ³Cooperative Learning and Computers in Social Studies Integrating Special Needs Students into General Education Classrooms.² Mary Male; Social Studies Review, January, 1993 (pp. 56-62)

 This article discusses the combination of cooperative learning techniques and computer-assisted instruction as an effective way of integrating special needs students into regular social studies classes. It mentions the various software and instructional strategies necessary to implement this approach effectively. It also outlines the characteristics of cooperative learning and a sample lesson plan.

 3. ³Making Computers Work for Students with Special Needs.² Judy Storeygard and others; Teaching Exceptional Children, Jan, 1994. (pp. 22-24)

 This article describes a course on computers and writing for special education, middle-school students who have trouble writing. The topics discussed include: the background of the course, the role of the computer, student attitudes, outcomes, and success stories. The major advantage of this course was the improved communication between regular and special education teachers.

 4. ³Technology in the Classroom: Applications and Strategies for the Education of Children with Severe Disabilities.² E. Lucinda Cassatt-James; Guides - Classroom Use - Teaching Guides, Sept. Œ94. (p. 231)

 This article deals with a basic introduction to using assistive technology with young children (ages 2-7) who have severe disabilities in more than one area of development. It is a training guided that is a part of a series. This particular module starts with an introduction outlining the role of technology and its myths and realities. Seven other subsequent chapters cover such topics as the following:
. Using technology in educational settings
. Determining an individual¹s technology needs
. Integrating technology into the curriculum
. Understanding computers
. Using computers with pre-school children
. Measuring skill acquisition
. Selling others on the merits of technology

 5. ³Two Dozen-Plus Ideas that will Help Special Needs Kids.² Martha Boyle, Sarah Korn-Rothschild; Teaching Pre K-8, Aug-Sept, 1994 (pp. 74-75)

 This article provides 27 specific suggestions for teachers with special needs children mainstreamed in their classroom. The children included in the regular classroom were mostly children with visual and auditory perceptual difficulties and poor motor skills. The article emphasizes the importance that teachers need to make sure directions, visual and verbal clues, materials, and the computers are appropriate for students with special needs.